Transition: The Life and Reign of George III

He is an Englishman: Years 1738 - 1751

This post is about the life and reign of George III.  It is important to understand this transition, in order to understand the world in which the third holder of the title Princess Royal, Charlotte, daughter of George III, lived.

As we have seen, George I and George II ruled both Britain and Hanover, each periodically visiting the latter country, to the dismay of the British public.  George I made little effort to anglicize, surrounding himself with Hanoverian counselors ... and his Hanoverian mistress.  George II, however, made quite an effort to anglicize, thereby increasing his popularity with the British public. His son, Prince Frederick, who never inherited the crown of Britain, was an important proponent of the game of cricket; however, he was born and raised in the electorate of Hanover.

Prince Frederick's son, however, was British through and through.  George III was the third monarch of the House of Hanover, but the first born in Britain.  George III was born in London two months prematurely.  He was thought unlikely to survive and was therefore baptized on the same day.  As a child, George was healthy, but shy and reserved.  George spoke English, not German, as his first language.  By the age of eight, he was intellectually precocious, able to read and write in both English and German, as well as to comment on the political events of his day.

George, Prince of Wales with his brother 
and tutor, Ayscough; by Richard Wilson

George III and his brother, Edward, were educated together by private tutors.  Young George was especially devoted to one tutor, the Scottish John Stuart, Earl of Bute, a man to whom he would remain attached even during the first few years of his reign.  George received a thorough, if somewhat politically biased, education.  He studied French, Latin, music, history, geography, commerce, constitutional law, agriculture and mathematics.  George III was the first British monarch to study science systematically, his studies including chemistry, astronomy, and physics.  He learned dancing, fencing, and horseback riding, as well as how to play the violin, harpsichord and flute.  He was brought up strictly Anglican by his religiously conservative mother, Augusta, the Princess of Wales, and remained devout and pious during his reign, frequently praying for several hours a day.  George's brother, Edward, stated, "No boys were ever brought up in greater ignorance of evil than the King and myself."[1]

Unlike his father and grandfather, there is no evidence that young George had a negative relationship with his own father, Prince Frederick.  In fact, J. C. Long quotes from a set of instructions written by Prince Frederick to his 11-year-old son, in which he expresses, "the tenderest paternal affection" for him.[1]  Also, unlike his father and grandfather, young George was never separated from his own parents for any remarkable length of time during his childhood.

Due to the ongoing hostility between his father and grandfather, young George did not have a great deal of contact with his grandfather, George II during his childhood ... until the unexpected death of Prince Frederick in 1751.  When young George received the news of his father's death, "he turned pale, laid his hand on his breast, saying, 'I feel something here just as I did when I saw two workmen fall from the scaffold at Kew,' and he wept inconsolably the whole day through."[1]  Long writes, "And in the testament of Frederick, Prince of Wales, heir apparent, was this singularly prophetic sentence, as if he had a premonition that he might die untimely: 'I shall have no regret never to have wore the Crown, if you do but fill it worthily.'"[1]

The Family of Frederick, Prince of Wales by George Knapton

The Heir Apparent: Years 1751 - 1769

Lord Bute by Joshua Reynolds

George II created the new heir apparent, young George, Prince of Wales only three weeks after Prince Frederick's death.  Against George II's wishes, Parliament named Prince George's mother, Augusta, prospective regent in the event of George II dying prior to Prince George's 18th birthday.  However, George II continued to rule until his death when Prince George was 22 years old, making a regency unnecessary.

Still, the Dowager Princess of Wales held a great deal of influence over her son.  Likewise, her son's tutor, Lord Bute, held a great deal of influence over her, interestingly, beginning at the time she was named prospective regent.  Throughout England, it was progressively rumored, both verbally and in the press, that they were lovers.  Although these rumors may have been false, Augusta lost any popularity she had ... permanently.  This popularity was lost partly due to the opinion that "as the years rolled on she tried to dominate [George] in a pathological fashion which became a public scandal."[1]  George's childhood was quite sheltered.  He did not mingle often with teenagers his own age, remaining closest to his brother, Edward.

Relations between Augusta and King George II remained strained until his death.  She even thwarted his plan to marry young George to Duchess Sophie Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, the niece of the King of Prussia.  George II wished to strengthen relations with Prussia and Hanover, but Augusta poisoned young George's mind against the match.  He stated he would not be "bewolfenbuttelled", and Sophie Caroline went on to marry a nobleman 26 years her senior.[2]  (Interestingly, Sophie Caroline's brother went on to marry young George's sister, Augusta.  They had a daughter, Caroline of Brunswick, who went on to marry George III's son, George IV.  See last family tree on previous post.)

Whether pressured or guided by his mother and Lord Bute, young George refused a separate, grand establishment offered to him on his birthday by the King in 1756.  He wrote he felt it was "his duty to remain with his mother."[1]  George did, however, accept the King's offer of an income of £40,000 a year.  Also per Lord Bute's advice, in 1759, George refrained from proposing to a British noblewoman who he had met at a dance and with whom he had fallen hopelessly in love, Lady Sarah Lennox.  George III wrote "I am born for the happiness or misery of a great nation and consequently must act contrary to my passions."  Despite not becoming queen ... or perhaps because of it ... Lady Sarah went on to have quite an interesting life.

Also in 1759, at the age of 21, George suffered a great, personal loss.  His 18-year-old sister, Elizabeth, who had had poor health throughout her childhood, died unexpectedly of what was most likely appendicitis.  George wrote to Lord Bute, "I have attempted this morning to read but find it impossible as yet to do anything except think of that dear sister I have lost, who was a friend as well as relation; with whom I had flattered myself to live till Heaven thought it proper to take me out of this world."[1]

The Grandson is Made King

George III by Allan Ramsay

In 1760, George II died, and George III both succeeded to the British throne and became Elector of Hanover at the age of 22.  In his accession speech to Parliament, following one of his father's instructions by expressing his commitment to Britain, even over Hanover, George III stated, "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of Britain."  George III remained true to that sentiment, spending his entire reign in southern England and never once visiting Hanover, to the delight of the British public.

Queen Charlotte holding
Charlotte by Francis Cotes

Although by the time the House of Hanover came to rule Britain, "the principles on which [the monarch] should operate and his responsibility to Parliament had been clearly and repeatedly defined,"[1] George III's reign was peppered with power struggles between Parliament and this strong-willed, irascible monarch.  The most powerful members of Parliament had personalities strong enough to match that of George.  "[T]here were just four men of chief consequence in the kingdom - Newcastle, [Henry] Fox, Pitt [the elder] and Bute... Each of the four men had one quality in common, great diligence in their attention to government, and no one of them ... could gain ascendancy without consideration of the others."[1]  During the first few years of his reign, George III was primarily influenced by Bute and had a deep dislike of Pitt, who was by far the more competent and accomplished statesman.

Less than a year after his accession, George III married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  They met for the first time on their wedding day.  The couple, who were both crowned two weeks later, had a truly happy marriage. Remarkably, unlike his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, George III never took a mistress.  His faithfulness to his wife, unusual in royal couples at the time (and now), endeared him to the British public.  Queen Charlotte proved to be a "fertile Myrtle," producing 15 children who survived infancy. One of them, Charlotte, became the third holder of the title, Princess Royal.

Family Tree of George III (Ancestry.com):

Unfortunate Marriages: Years 1770 - 1772

Ever placing morality as a high priority, George III was shocked by the behavior of his brothers.  After his brother, Prince Henry, was exposed as an adulterer in 1770, Prince William married the daughter of a British baron, Anne Horton, later that year.  George III disapproved of this marriage, especially because the marriage was considered morganatic by Hanoverian law.  Any of Prince William's children and their ancestors would be barred from the Hanoverian succession.  This was particularly problematic during a time at which typhoid could quickly wipe out an entire royal nursery, leaving a sibling of the King next in line to the thrones of both countries.

In 1772, the Royal Marriages Act was passed at the insistence of the King.  This law forbade members of the royal family, specifically descendants of George II, from marrying without the consent of the monarch.  Subsequently, another brother of the King, Prince William Henry informed George III he had secretly married Maria, Countess Waldegrave back in 1766.  Maria, a widow, was also the illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole, and thereby related to George III's political opponents.  Neither Anne nor Maria were ever received at court.  Perhaps George III's reaction was not terribly surprising.  After all, he himself had been pressured to give up Lady Sarah Lennox in favor of Charlotte of Mecklinberg-Strelitz, due to dynastic considerations ... at a time when dynastic considerations could make the difference between war and peace.  (To add insult to injury, George III's disobedient sixth son, Prince Augustus, also married in contravention of the Act ... in 1793 to Lady Augusta Murray ... and again in 1831 to Lady Cecilia Underwood.)

The mental gymnastics required to even imagine the legal ramifications of this law, which now has a very broad ambit, to the many scattered descendants of George II, are staggering.  The following is one example: The crowns of Britain and Hanover were split in 1837.  The crown of Britain went to George III's granddaughter, Queen Victoria, and the crown of Hanover to George III's fifth son, Ernest Augustus.  The Hanoverian royal family later lost their crown when deposed in 1866.  Ernest Augustus's descendants, most of whom currently reside in what is now Germany, still petition the current British monarch, Elizabeth II, for permission to marry.  Some of these individuals still own land in Britain, as well as the right to petition for British titles, and therefore need Britain to consider their marriages (and future children) legitimate.  Luckily for the current Prince Ernst August Albert of Hanover and Princess Caroline of Monaco (a Catholic), as well as for the current Duke of Cambridge and Duchess of Cambridge (a former commoner), Elizabeth II is far more flexible than George III ever was.  

Although the Royal Marriages Act of 1772 is still in effect and unaltered, it is imperfectly applied. Interestingly, the law may well be changed in 2013 to apply only to the first six people in the line of succession to the British crown.  This change would be to the relief of the many descendants of George II ... but may threaten the job security of a number of British barristers.

Colonial Rebellion and London Riots: Years 1773 - 1782

The Boston Tea Party by Nathaniel Currier

After growing unrest in the American colonies (such as 1773's Boston Tea Party), due to disagreements with Parliament over the issues of taxation and representation, the American colonies declared independence from Britain in 1776.  This resulted in the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence.  Depending on the side of the pond on which the history book was written, George III may be portrayed as a tyrant who refused the Americans representation while taxing them out of house and home ... or as a constitutional monarch reigning appropriately within his sphere, allowing his ministers the latitude necessary to carry out their responsibilities and supporting the right of an elected Parliament to levy taxes.  Either way, no monarch of that time, or any other, would have let such a large and valuable territory go without a fight.  George III determinedly refused to acknowledge the independence of the colonies.

In 1778, France allied with the colonies, entering the war openly after having supported the colonies covertly for two years.  Spain allied with the colonies in 1779.  The Dutch Republic continued to trade with the colonies until Britain declared war on the republic in 1780.  The alliance of these three countries with the colonies kept Britain on their toes, both in North America and in Europe.  The war was very costly for Britain, a country that did not have the virtually unlimited resources the colonists enjoyed.

Beset by military failures, territorial losses and an ever-growing family, George III suffered from a great deal of stress.  Then, personal tragedy struck.  The royal couple's youngest child, Alfred, became ill just after being inoculated for smallpox and died in 1782 at the age of almost two.  Evidently, he had contracted smallpox from the vaccination.  Only six months later, their youngest surviving child, Octavius, died under the same circumstances.

Lord George Gordon

The year 1780 brought with it significant domestic turmoil in the form of the Gordon Riots.  Led by Lord George Gordon, leader of the Protestant Association, approximately 50,000 Londoners marched on the House of Commons to protest the Papists Act of 1778, an act proposing to eliminate some of the penalties and restrictions imposed on Roman Catholic citizens by the Popery Act of 1698.  The Papists Act was introduced at the height of the American War of Independence, a time at which Britain needed all the military manpower it could recruit.  The act would facilitate the enlistment of Catholics in the British Armed Forces.  After the march, rioters destroyed numerous houses privately owned by Catholics, embassies, the homes of Irish immigrant workers, Newgate Prison, The Clink, and other private and public properties.  The riots, although put down, damaged Britain's international reputation at a time when it needed all the allies it could get.  (One may wish to read Charles Dickens's Barnaby Rudge, a classic historical novel taking place during the Gordon Riots.)

After Yorktown surrendered in 1781, George III drafted a notice of abdication, which was never delivered.  Britain accepted defeat.  France recognized the United States as an independent nation, followed by the Dutch Republic in 1782.  The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783, ending the War of American Independence.

Constitutional Crisis: Years 1783 - 1784

The partisan George III, sympathetic with the Tory party, had to contend with conflicts with Whig members of Parliament, many of which arose from profound philosophical differences.  Lord North's ministry collapsed in 1782, and Lord Rockingham became Prime Minster for the second time.  After he died within months of his election, George III appointed the Whig Lord Shelburne to replace him.  However, in 1783, the House of Commons forced him from office and replaced his government with the Fox-North Coalition.  Charles James Fox became Foreign Secretary.  This government, which was formed with no input from the King, lasted less than a year, losing popularity upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which offered terms to the Americans many believed to be too generous.

Charles James Fox by Joshua Reynolds

Charles James Fox was a Whig politician, a proponent of American independence, an anti-slavery campaigner, and a supporter of the French Revolution.  In contrast, George III represented the "old guard", doing everything in his power to maintain control of the colonies until the final loss of the war.  Fox was a notorious gambler and rake.  George III was well-known for his piety, frugality, and what we would now term "family values".  Fox supported the authority of Parliament and the constitution.  George III wanted influence over Parliamentary elections and appointments, a desire Fox called "tyranny".  George III thought Fox to have "cast off every principle of common honour and honesty" and been a man who was "as contemptible as he is odious" and had an "aversion to all restraints."  Fox associated George III's reign with "despotism", denouncing him more thoroughly than any American rebel ever did.

George III refrained even from communicating with this new government, much less patronizing it. Fox once ended an epistle to the King with, "Whenever your Majesty will be graciously pleased to condescend even to hint your inclinations upon any subject, that it will be the study of Your Majesty's Ministers to show how truly sensible they are of Your Majesty's goodness."  George III replied, "No answer."

George, Prince of Wales 
by Richard Cosway

George III had not only political, but personal reasons, as well, for disliking Fox.  He saw him as an extremely bad influence on his eldest son, the Prince of Wales.  George III blamed Fox for the Prince's notorious debauchery and "many failings, not the least a tendency to vomit in public."  Although seriously considering abdicating the throne after the loss of the colonies and the onset of this unpalatable government, George III pressed on, spurred by nightmarish visions of the accession of his son, a consummate womanizer, spendthrift, and gambler, who could swear in three languages ... and most likely took after George III's own father, Prince Frederick.  George III was ever disappointed in the grandiose Prince, who, despite having been raised in a quite religious household, failed to internalize the values of George III.

Late in 1783, however, things started looking up.  The 24-year-old William Pitt the Younger, the King's nominee, was appointed Prime Minister ... the youngest ever.  He remained in power for 17 years.  George III saw Pitt's appointment as a victory.  Having interpreted public opinion correctly, the King had appointed a Prime Minister without following the suit of the majority in the House of Commons.  George III held his footing and gained political ground over the next several years, supporting Pitt's political goals and increasing Pitt's supporters in the House of Lords by, well, creating them.  The King created new peers at an incredible rate.  Throughout the administrative changes of the early 1780s, George III continued to be popular among his subjects, who admired his personal values.

Filial Disobedience: Years 1785

Maria Fitzherbert by Sir Joshua Reynolds

In December of 1785, in contravention of the Royal Marriages Act, the 21-year-old Prince of Wales secretly married twice-widowed, 27-year-old Maria Fitzherbert, a commoner ... and practicing Catholic.  If it had been considered legitimate, this marriage would have barred the Prince from the succession under the Act of Settlement of 1701 (see third post).  However, since the King did not give his permission for the marriage, it was considered illegitimate.  The Prince of Wales's relationship with Maria Fitzherbert continued until 1794, at which time the extravagant Prince was in debt to the tune of £600,000.  For both financial and dynastic reasons, the Prince married his first cousin, Charlotte of Brunswick, in 1795 ... a marriage that would prove to be a train wreck.

Royal Madness: Years 1786 - 1788

In 1786, a woman named Margaret Nicholson attempted to assassinate George III while he was alighting from his carriage. Feigning to present a petition to the King, she then attempted to stab him twice with a dessert knife. Once she was disarmed, George III reputedly said, "The poor creature is mad. Do not hurt her. She has not hurt me." Miss Nicholson was sent to Bedlam, where she remained until her death 42 years later. George III's compassion toward his mentally ill assailant is notable, especially considering how his own circumstances changed two years later.

Porphyria is a hereditary disorder caused by abnormalities in the steps leading to the production of heme, a chemical compound essential to the body. Multiple enzymes are needed for the body to produce heme. If any one of the enzymes is abnormal, the process cannot continue and an intermediate product, porphyrin, may build up and be excreted in the urine and stool. People with porphyria may develop symptoms affecting their skin (cutaneous type) or their nervous systems (acute type). (Did you follow all of this? No? Don't worry, I didn't either.)

The main thing to know is that if a person develops acute porphyria, he or she can exhibit personality changes and mental illness, which can appear intermittently and last from a few days to several weeks ... or longer. Attacks of porphyria can be triggered by a number of things, including exposure to chemicals and emotional/physical stress. During the 1700s, porphyria was a mystery to physicians. It was not until 1871 that porphyria was explained biochemically. It was not until 1889 that acute porphyria, the type causing mental illness, was explained. No one could identify it, much less treat it.

Despite a lack of proof, some medical historians believe George III developed porphyria during the summer of 1788. Despite an insufficiency of genetic evidence, some historians believe porphyria was (perhaps is) transmitted genetically within the royal family. (George III's great-great-grandson, Prince William of Gloucester, was reliably diagnosed with porphyria in 1966, although his symptoms were apparently limited to that of the cutaneous type.) Some believe George III's periodic attacks of porphyria may have been triggered by exposure to arsenic, a known porphyrogenic, either through cosmetics or medication. (A 2005 study of a hair sample of George III revealed high levels of arsenic.) Other historians believe George III may have had bipolar disorder. Regardless of the cause, George III began to exhibit symptoms of severe mental and physical illness.

By November of 1788, George III was deranged. He sometimes spoke for hours without stopping, which made his voice hoarse and caused him to foam at the mouth. He would hallucinate, believing himself to be having conversations with his two deceased little sons. At one point, he mistook a pillow for Octavius, who had been dead for five years. His physicians could not diagnose his illness and did not know how to treat it. They could only forcibly restrain him until he calmed down. In February of 1789, the Regency Bill was passed in the House of Commons, authorizing the Prince of Wales to act as regent for the King. However, before the House of Lords could pass the bill, the King recovered, his popularity still intact.  (For an interesting dramatization of this episode, see the 1994 film, The Madness of King George, directed by Nicholas Hytner.)

The French Revolution and Parliamentary Turnover: Years 1789 - 1809

Marie Antoinette by Le Brun

France's absolute monarchy, which had ruled for centuries, was overthrown in only three years. Radical political groups transformed society, espousing the principles of "liberty, equality and fraternity". The revolution began in 1789, and King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed in 1793. In 1792, a republic was declared and the French Revolutionary Wars began. France was continually at war with Britain from 1793 until 1802, ceasing with the Treaty of Amiens. In 1799, General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the French Directory, seized power, and replaced it with the French Consulate in the coup d'état called the coupe of 18 Brumaire. In 1803, the Treaty of Amiens collapsed and Britain and France again went to war. In 1804, Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor. Britain remained at war with France until Bonaparte's defeat and death at Waterloo in 1815. George III became a symbol of resistance to French power.

These years, which changed the face of Europe, saw domestic political changes, as well. In order to decrease the likelihood of Irish rebellions, such as the one that occurred in 1798, Pitt helped to bring about the Act of Union of 1800. This Act united Great Britain and Ireland, forming the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".

In 1800, the King survived a second assassination attempt. At the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, a man named James Hadfield attempted to shoot George III during the playing of the national anthem. Hadfield missed and then addressed the King: "God bless your Royal Highness. I like you very well. You are a good fellow." Hadfield was acquitted of attempted murder by reason of insanity and was sent to Bedlam, where he remained (aside from a short period of escape) until his death 41 years later. His case led to the passage of the Criminal Lunatics Act of 1800, which provided for the indefinite detention of mentally ill defendants.

In 1801, George III himself had another bout of mental illness, but again recovered ... only to repeat the process again in 1804. Pitt died in 1806 and was succeeded by Lord Grenville, the Duke of Portland, and Spencer Percival. After Percival's assassination, Lord Liverpool became Prime Minister and saw the Napoleonic Wars to their conclusion ... British victory.

Melancholy Beyond Description: Years 1810 - 1820

During the 1400s, the mental illness of England's king, at that time Henry VI, created a climate of political instability that contributed to the rise of, and helped perpetuate, the War of the Roses. Henry VI would intermittently become catatonic, completely immobile and unable to speak, for weeks to months at a time. The instability was created not only by his mental illness, but also by his periods of recovery. The power of the crown would be threatened, then reestablished, only to be threatened again.

Princess Amelia of the United Kingdom 
by William Beechey

In 1810, George III lost his favorite, beloved daughter, the 27-year-old Princess Amelia, to tuberculosis. Her death caused him to rave with grief, late Amelia's nurse reporting, "the scenes of distress and crying every day ... were melancholy beyond description." The stress triggered a final relapse of porphyria. A regency was finally established in 1811 by act of Parliament. The heir to the throne, the Prince of Wales, was appointed Prince Regent. The Prince ruled until the death of George III in 1820, then succeeding to the throne as George IV. The years of 1810 to 1820 are known as the Regency Era, a time of elegance and rigid social etiquette, a time that saw the height of Jane Austen's literary career, the War of 1812, the poetry of Shelley and Byron, and the birth of Alexandrina Victoria, the future Queen Victoria.

The final 10 years of George III's life were years of suffering. He was in constant pain from rheumatism, almost completely blind from cataracts, and continuously mentally ill. He lived in seclusion at Windsor Castle. He was completely unaware of major events. For instance, the Congress of Vienna, which concluded the Napoleonic Wars, led to territorial gains for the electorate of Hanover, which consequently became a kingdom. Unbeknownst to him, in 1814, George III was declared King of Hanover (which sounded better than "Elector").

George III's much loved and faithful wife, Queen Charlotte, died in 1818 at the age of 74, while seated in her armchair at Kew Palace and holding the hand of the Prince Regent. The King never knew. During the Christmas season of 1819, George III spoke nonsense for 58 hours straight. For the final few weeks of his life, he was unable to walk. George III's fourth son, Prince Edward, died on January 23, 1820 of pneumonia, his daughter, baby Alexandrina Victoria, not yet a year old. Only six days later, George III himself died, his favorite son, Prince Frederick, at his side. He was buried in St. George's Chapel in Windsor Castle.

A Great King ... After All

George III left quite a legacy. The British Agricultural Revolution reached its peak during his reign. George III, intensely interested in agriculture, was dubbed "Farmer George" by satirists. During his reign, advances were made in the fields of science and industry. His collection of scientific and mathematical instruments can now be seen in the Science Museum in London. Upon discovering the planet Uranus in 1781, William Herschel named it George's Star, since George III had funded the construction of his telescope, at 40 feet, the largest that had ever been built. George III collected art and books. He made his extensive King's Library available to scholars, and it later became the foundation of a new national library. It is estimated that George III donated more than half of his personal income to charity.

Having lived for 81 years and reigned for almost 60, both his life and his reign were longer than any monarch who came before him. Only his granddaughter, Queen Victoria, and his great-great-granddaughter, Elizabeth II have since lived and reigned longer. Almost as if he had foreseen the polarized views that would be taken of him by future historians, George III once stated he hoped "the tongue of malice may not paint my intentions in those colours she admires, nor the sycophant extol me beyond what I deserve."

1. Long, J. C. George III: The Story of a Complex Man. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1960.
2. Hibbert, Christopher. George III: A Personal History. Basic Books, 1998.

Transition: From George II, Over Prince Frederick, to George III

Abandonment Issues: Years 1705 - 1727

This post is about the transition from George II to his grandson, George III.  It is necessary to understand this transition, in order to understand how the third holder of the title Princess Royal, Charlotte, daughter of George III, came to be.

In 1705, prior to his father's succession and while still living in Hanover, George Augustus (later George II) married Caroline of Ansbach.  They remained devoted to each other throughout their lives.  In 1707, Caroline delivered a healthy son, Frederick, whose family nickname was "Griff".  His birth was followed by that of Anne, Princess Royal (see previous post).  Caroline went on to have several other children, as well.

In 1714, when Frederick was seven years old, his grandfather, George I, already ruler of Hanover, succeeded to the throne of Britain. Frederick's father left with George I for England.  Later that same year, Caroline and her daughters sailed to England. Frederick was left behind in Hanover.  Why did the family leave the son behind?  (For that matter, why did they nickname him "Griff"?)  The reason was political.  Hanover recognized Salic law, which stated only males could inherit territory and crowns.  As their first-born and, at the time, only son, it was important for the family to leave a representative, the second-in-line to the crown of Hanover, where kings reigned absolute.  Frederick was a sort of collateral, a reassurance to the people of Hanover, as well as neighboring countries, that the family continued to rule, even while also accepting the crown of a second, far-away country.

It is unclear whether the decision to leave Frederick behind was made by George Augustus or George I (although George I certainly had a penchant for separating children from their parents).  It is also unclear why it was considered a higher priority for Frederick to be left in Hanover, rather than taken to England to be groomed to eventually succeed to the throne of Britain.  Nevertheless, Frederick was raised by his great-uncle, Ernest (George I's trusted youngest brother), and private tutors.  He would not see his family again for 14 years, a separation that would have negative repercussions for the entire family for years to come.

Family tree of George I (Ancestry.com):

Frederick's father, George Augustus had a conflicted relationship with his own father, George I.  Once in England, George Augustus was associated with opposition politics until at least 1720.  He was popular with the British public, having made an effort to anglicize: learning the language, customs, and politics of Britain.  George I felt threatened by his son's greater popularity.  The relationship between father and son never healed, only becoming more discordant after George I separated George Augustus and his wife from their children following a father-son quarrel.

Engraving of Young Frederick by 
Georg Wilhelm Lafontaine

Meanwhile, back in Hanover, Frederick continued to be reared by Great-Uncle Ernest, who there was considered head of the royal family and regent in all but name.  In 1718, when Frederick was 11 years old, both he and Ernest were created Knights of the Order of the Garter.  In 1722, Frederick was inoculated against smallpox, according to his distant mother's wish.  George I created him Duke of Edinburgh from afar.

In 1727, when Frederick was 20 years old, his grandfather, George I, died, and his father, George Augustus, succeeded to the throne of England (and Hanover) as George II.  For the next 10 years, Queen Caroline, who was coronated, wielded unprecedented political influence, consistently making wise decisions, promoting unity between her husband and Parliament, and showing mercy to the most unfortunate of her subjects, including those in the penal system.

Trust Issues (1728 - 1729)

Even after his succession, George II did not at first have Frederick brought from Hanover.  Then, in 1728, when Frederick was 21, Ernest died, without issue and without ever having been married. Rather than Frederick being allowed to move up and taking a more direct role as regent of Hanover at this point, Frederick was summoned to England for the first time. Perhaps it was so his parents could keep an eye on him.  Perhaps it was to better control his marriage negotiations.  Perhaps it was so Frederick could be actively prevented from becoming regent of Hanover, a role in which his father clearly did not wish him to be.  J. C. Long states Frederick came to England at his own insistence upon coming of age.[1]  Regardless, not having Great-Uncle Ernest or Frederick in Hanover to represent the monarchy, George II began to make yearly visits to his birth-country, much as his father had done.

Long writes, "On arrival Frederick was received by his parents with pool politeness."1  After having lived apart from his parents and siblings for 14 years, it is not surprising that Frederick had a distant relationship with them.  He had never before met his youngest siblings, including his new rival, Prince William, his parents' favorite.  At one point, George II considered splitting his domains in such a way that Frederick would succeed to the throne of Britain, while William would succeed to the throne of Hanover.  Ultimately, however, the two brothers never had to swap home countries.

Since childhood, Frederick had been used to presiding over official occasions in Hanover.  Although created Prince of Wales in 1729, he continually chafed under the restraints of his new British role, which really came with no power, whatsoever.  George II did not even allow Frederick to chair the regency council during his visits to Hanover, choosing Queen Caroline to do so, instead.  Really, given the way in which his parents consistently shied away from bestowing responsibility upon him, one almost has to wonder whether Prince Frederick was an alcoholic.  However, Long states Frederick was a teetotaler.  Long takes issue with many negative contemporary representations of Frederick, stating most were written by two of his known enemies.  He writes, "Frederick was beloved by all classes of society except the Court, by most of the nobility, by the merchants of London, by the masses and by his son.  Frederick was a wit, a musician of note and a man who had an awareness of the need for social reform."[1]  Long's description of Frederick, however, does not sufficiently explain why drama seemed to follow him everywhere he went.

Prince Frederick, The Weakest Link?: Years 1730 - 1736

Prince Frederick was "high-spirited" (another word for profligate).  He was well-known to enjoy spending, gambling, and women.  Following in George II's footsteps, his son, Prince Frederick, supported the parliamentary opposition.  He even supported a rival opera, competing (unsuccessfully) with Handel's royally-sponsored opera.  He closely befriended the court gossip, Lord Hervey, who said Prince Frederick made it a point to oppose his royal parents in everything.  Lord Hervey also recalled that, upon seeing Frederick, Queen Caroline once exclaimed, "Look, there he goes—that wretch!—that villain!—I wish the ground would open this moment and sink the monster to the lowest hole in hell!" ... or something to that effect.  George II was quoted as saying, "My dear first-born is the greatest ass, the greatest liar, the greatest canaille and the greatest beast in the whole world and I heartily wish he was out of it."[1]

Prince Frederick and Lord Hervey shared everything, from the spectacular failure of a theatrical comedy they co-wrote (... the audience was literally refunded their money ...), to a favorite mistress, Anne Vane.  A son born to Anne in 1732, FitzFrederick Vane, could have been the child of either Prince Frederick or Lord Hervey (or of the 1st Earl of Harrington, for that matter).  After a falling out, Lord Hervey wrote of Prince Frederick that he was "false ... never having the least hesitation in telling any lie that served his present purpose".  Perhaps these were the words of a biased enemy.

Frederick, Prince of Wales, and his sisters, Anne, 
Caroline and Amelia by Philip Mercier

Frederick did have his positive (or at least innocuous) points.  He loved music and played the viola and cello.  He supported the composer, Thomas Arne, who likewise supported the Prince politically.  Arne composed Rule Britannia as part of a masque, in which the Prince's self-aggrandizing tendencies reached a pinnacle. (Frederick was known for wishing to build up Britain's sea power.  The masque compared Frederick with Alfred the Great and his victories over the Vikings.)  Frederick was interested in painting and patronized numerous artists.  He also enjoyed practical jokes (possibly at the expense of others) and was a promoter of the game of cricket, which was growing in popularity at the time.

Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, Princess 
of Wales by Charles Philips

Heavily in debt, Prince Frederick wanted to marry the wealthy Lady Diana Spencer, who would have brought to the marriage an immense dowry of £100,000.  However, the proposed marriage was vetoed by George II and, more importantly, Robert Walpole, de facto Prime Minister and the most powerful man in England at the time.  Lady Diana went on to marry and enrich the Duke of Bedford.  In 1736, the 29-year-old Prince Frederick married the 17-year-old Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, who was selected for him by George II.  Augusta, possibly conveniently, spoke virtually no English.  By the time of his marriage, Frederick had already had two children by one mistress and one by another.

Carrying On the Proud Tradition of Filial Hostility: Years 1736 - 1737

George II's English subjects were not in favor of the King's visits to Hanover.  Perhaps they wanted him all to themselves.  Perhaps it reminded them of James II's "abdication" to the shores of France. Regardless, George II's popularity decreased when he visited Hanover in May of 1736.  A mischevious notice was pinned to the gate of St. James's Palace, stating: "Lost or strayed out of this house, a man who has left a wife and six children on the parish".

Perhaps hearing of the unrest, George II decided to return to England, even under threat of inclement weather.  His ship was caught in a storm, and rumors that he had drowned were bruited about London.  To the Queen's chagrin, Prince Frederick took this opportunity to passive-aggressively express his filial hostility by hosting a grand dinner while the tempest raged.

Finally, eight months after his original departure, George II returned to England in January of 1737. He immediately developed piles and a fever and had to be on bed rest.  Prince Frederick told everyone George II was dying, an action the late Henry VIII had made treasonous.  Poor George II had to leave his bed to attend a social event to disprove the rumor.

Frederick, Prince of Wales by Jacopo Amigoni

After George II refused to grant Prince Frederick the financial allowance to which he felt entitled (That feeling seemed to increased in proportion to his growing debts.), Prince Frederick continued to embarrass his parents by publicly opposing George II's political aims, such as the Gin Act of 1736.  Daring to apply to Parliament for the financial allowance denied him by the King, Prince Frederick finally received a modest raise, which failed to satisfy him.  He remained in constant debt for the duration of his life.

Perhaps to obtain negative attention from his father, Prince Frederick frequently tried to start quarrels with his mother.  However, he overstepped the line in 1737.  In June, he informed his parents his wife was expecting, due to give birth in October.  Either accidentally or purposely, Frederick miscalculated her due date.  Augusta went into labor in July.  The Prince, some say vindictively, smuggled her out of Hampton Court Palace at night and smuggled her to St. James's Palace in a carriage.  Long stated this plan was prearranged by both Frederick and Augusta, who "feared for the safety and future of her unborn child."[1]  Long states the King and Queen did not wish for Frederick to have children, but rather, for his younger brother to remain second in the line of succession.  If that was the case, however, why did George II arrange Frederick's marriage?  Nevertheless, arranging for the baby to be born at St. James's ensured the monarchs could not be present at the birth.

Now, we all remember the birth of James II's son, James Francis. (If you don't, please see the third post.)  It was extremely important for witnesses to be present at royal births, preferably members of the royal family, as well as senior courtiers.  Without witnesses, anyone could accuse a royal baby of being "suppositious" and question that child's right to inherit the throne.  For that matter, a royal woman could actually feign pregnancy and claim a child not her own, as Mary of Modena was (most likely falsely) accused of having done.  Without royal witnesses, how could anyone prove Princess Augusta's son was actually her own?  It was no wonder that the King and Queen were horrified when the couple's absence was discovered.  George II stated he feared a "changeling doubtless had been wished upon them."[1]

Augusta of Great Britain at the age of 
about 26, artist unknown

Luckily for Princess Augusta, the point was moot.  Not only were at least two cabinet members present to officially witness the birth, but the baby was a girl.  The genuine article was christened Augusta (of Great Britain), after her mother. Or, as the Queen put it with grandmotherly pride, after booking it to St. James's Palace, a "poor, ugly little she-mouse".  Princess Augusta could not have been suspected of sporting a false heir by adopting a healthy baby boy.

Nevertheless, the monarchs had had enough of Prince Frederick.  He was banished from court, much as his father had been, although possibly for better reasons.  Frederick was not allowed to remove any furniture or trunks from his apartments.  George II said, "A clothes-basket is good enough for them!"[1]  When Queen Caroline became fatally ill in November, George II refused Prince Frederick permission to see her.  The Queen agreed with this decision, but did send Prince Frederick a message of forgiveness.  Prince Frederick was not invited to her funeral, which took place in December.

An Unlikely Family Man: Years 1742 - 1751

Family tree of Frederick, Prince of Wales (Ancestry.com):

It is worth noting Prince Frederick, to all intents and purposes, ceased his womanizing ways when he married Princess Augusta. After the drama-laced birth of baby Augusta, Prince Frederick and his wife went on to have eight more children.  Frederick's eldest son, who surprised his parents by being born two months early, was christened George, because there just weren't enough Georges of whom to keep track.  Prince Frederick was devoted to his family and took them to live at Cliveden, where Prince Frederick lived the life of a sportsman.  Ever submissive, Princess Augusta bent to her husband's will in his ongoing feud with his parents.

Prince Frederick became the focus of a rival court at Leicester House, much as his father's court had rivaled that of George I.  In 1742, perhaps partly due to the increasing influence of Prince Frederick's political allies, George II was willing to reconcile with him.  However, this truce lasted only until 1747, when Prince Frederick rejoined the opposition ... who subsequently lost the election.

In 1745, James II's grandson, Charles Stuart, fomented a Jacobite rising in Scotland.  The Scottish clans were decimated at Culloden.  Charles escaped the fray with the help of a Scottish woman, Flora MacDonald.  She was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London.  Perhaps out of simple altruism, or perhaps to aggravate his father, Prince Frederick met with her and helped secure her release.

Frederick, Prince of Wales 

by Thomas Frye

In March of 1751, the strained relationship between George II and Prince Frederick finally came to an end when Frederick died unexpectedly, but perhaps to the relief of many, at the age of 44.  (Some say a cricket injury caused an abscess in his lung, which burst.  Some say a tennis injury caused an abscess in his eye, which somehow resulted in pneumonia.  Regardless, the cause of death was respiratory.)  He was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Prince Prederick's early death meant that his youngest daughter, Caroline Mathilde, who was born four months after Frederick's death, would never meet her father.  Prince Frederick's early death, prior to a succession to the British throne, made his eldest daughter, young Princess Augusta of Great Britain, permanently ineligible for the title Princess Royal.

Princess Augusta of Great Britain went on to marry Duke Karl II of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.  She had a daughter, Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, in 1764, as well as another daughter, Caroline of Brunswick, in 1768.  Both sisters entered into significant dynastic marriages.  Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel went on to marry Frederick II, Duke of Württemberg. Caroline of Brunswick went on to marry George IV of Great Britain.  Both of these women will be referenced again.

Family tree of Princess Augusta of Great Britain (Ancestry.com):

Posthumous Drama: Years 1751 - 1760

George, Prince of Wales by James MacArdell

The death of Prince Frederick, the heir apparent, spawned political chaos and controversy.  His 12-year-old son, George, became the new heir and was created Prince of Wales three weeks after Prince Frederick's death. Continuing to favor his younger son, George II wished Prince William to be named prospective regent during young George's minority.  However, the British public preferred the child's mother be named.  Although the public's wish was granted, in the end, a regency never became necessary.  George II did not die until two weeks before his 77th birthday in 1760, at which time young George was 22.  The nephew of the second Princess Royal, Anne, reigned as George III from 1760 until 1820, the longest reigning monarch to that date.

My next post will be about the life and reign of George III, the father of the third holder of the title Princess Royal, Charlotte.

1. Long, J. C. George III: The Story of a Complex Man. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1960.

Anne, 2nd Princess Royal, Daughter of George II

Father Vs. Son

George II by Charles Jervas

George I's relationship with his son, George Augustus, had always been poor. Whatever could have made George Augustus so angry with his father?  Could it have been: a) George I's ever-present Hanoverian royal mistress, Melusine, who came with George I to England upon his succession; b) George's decision to imprison his wife, George Augustus's mother, Sophia of Celle, for the last 30 years of her life; c) George's decision to separate 11-year-old George Augustus and his sister from her, permanently; or d) all of the above?  Regardless, the heir to the throne always remained a thorn in George I's side.  George Augustus, more popular than his father, was associated with opposition politicians until at least 1720.  Their relationship remained extremely strained until George I's death in 1727, while on a trip to Hanover, where he was buried.

Family tree of George I (Ancestry.com):

A Budding Family in Hanover: Years 1705 - 1713

Caroline Wilhelmina of Brandenburg-Ansbach 
by Sir Godfrey Kneller

Despite this strain, and perhaps due to his own negative marital experiences, George did allow George Augustus to choose his own bride. Prior to his father's succession, George Augustus married an attractive, Protestant, German princess, Caroline of Ansbach, in 1705. They were devoted to each other throughout their lives. Caroline delivered a healthy son, Frederick, in 1707, as well as a daughter in 1709. And here, we finally come to the second Princess Royal, Anne.

Anne was born in Hanover and named after Queen Anne of Britain, who was still living at the time. During the first five years of her life, a time not commonly known as the most serene, she was styled Her Serene Royal Highness, Duchess Anne of Brunswick-Lüneburg (quite a mouthful).

Handel with George I
by Eduoard Hammon

As a child, Anne was taught music by Handel, who generally disliked teaching, but stated he would make an exception for "Anne, flower of princesses". He knew who buttered his bread. (The royal family always remained closely associated with Handel, commissioning him to write four anthems for George Augustus's coronation, the music for Anne's wedding, and the music for Caroline's funeral.) Anne spent a great deal of time with her younger sisters, Amelia and Caroline, the latter her mother's namesake.

A New Home in Britain: Years 1714 - 1724

Princesses Anne, Amelia and Caroline

by Martin Maingaud, 1721

When Anne was five years old, her grandfather, George I, succeeded to the throne, and her father left with George I for England. Anne sailed to England with her mother and sisters later that same year. Interestingly, Anne's elder brother, Frederick, was left behind in Hanover at the age of seven, to be raised by his great-uncle, Ernest, and private tutors. He would not see his family again for 14 years, a separation that would have negative repercussions for the family for years to come.

Anne's parents were styled the Prince and Princess of Wales, Caroline becoming the first Princess of Wales in over 200 years and the highest ranking woman in the kingdom. Princess Anne's parents were popular with the British public, both making a concerted effort to anglicize: learning the language, customs, and politics of Britain. George I felt threatened by his son's greater popularity.
Prince George William by John Simon

When Anne was eight years old, her younger brother, George William, was born. After a quarrel between George I and George Augustus at George William's christening, George I banished the baby's parents from the court, keeping all the children under his care, thereby separating the children, even the newborn, from their parents. Caroline was not granted permission to visit the baby until two months later. Both parents were allowed to visit the baby when he fell ill at three months old. Tragically, the baby died from the illness in February of 1718, with his father by his side. His parents initially blamed George I for the baby's death, as he had separated the parents from their children, much as he had separated his own children from their mother, George I's wife. Even after a postmortem revealed a polyp on the baby's heart, the relationship between the parents and George I always remained negative, to say the least. Until at least 1720, Anne and her two younger sisters remained in the care of the king.

At the age of 11, Anne survived smallpox, as Caroline and George Augustus had done before Anne's birth. The illness left her face somewhat scarred, and she was thereafter not considered as beautiful as her two younger sisters. Caroline subsequently became an advocate of variolation, a new, early form of immunization against smallpox. When Anne was 12, her younger brother, William, was born, followed by two sisters, Mary and Louise.

Family tree of George II (Ancestry.com):

The Succession of George II and Anne's Marriage: Years 1727 - 1734

Portrait of Anne, Princess Royal and 
Princess of Orange by Bernard Accama

In 1727, when Anne was 18 years old, Anne's father, George Augustus, succeeded to the throne as George II. For the next 10 years, Queen Caroline, who was coronated, wielded immense political influence, consistently making wise decisions, promoting unity between her husband and Parliament, and showing mercy to the most unfortunate of her subjects, including those in the penal system. Only 10 weeks after his succession, George II created Anne Princess Royal. She used this style for six years and six months. Upon marrying William IV, Prince of Orange, in 1734, the 24-year-old Anne was styled Princess of Orange.

William IV was the first-cousin-twice-removed of William III of England (on William III's father's side). Anne was the second-cousin-twice-removed of William III of England (on William III's mother's side). However, unlike so many royal couples, William IV and Anne were not related. Anne was two years older than William. It was essential that she marry a Protestant and remain Protestant herself; so essential, she had turned down the chance to become Queen of France, when King Louis XV insisted that she first convert to Catholicism.

Reports of William's physical appearance differ. He had a spinal deformity, which affected his appearance. However, at least in the Netherlands, William was considered attractive, educated, and accomplished. Regardless, according to politician Horace Walpole, Anne had said she would marry him even "if he was a baboon" to which George II replied, "Well then, there is baboon enough for you!". After their honeymoon at Kew, the couple sailed to the Netherlands.  

A New Home in the Netherlands: Years 1735 - 1746

Portrait of William IV, Prince of 
Orange by Joseph Aved

Anne and her mother missed each other very much, Queen Caroline writing to her of her "indescribable" sadness at Anne's departure. Feeling homesick and believing herself to be pregnant, Anne visited England while William was on campaign in the Rhineland. She stayed long enough for both her husband and her father to command her to return to Holland. Some reports state that Anne had not been pregnant, after all. Some state she had a stillborn son in 1735. Regardless, in 1736, she had a stillborn daughter.

Anne's decision to visit England may have been prescient, for, in 1737, her mother died. Queen Caroline's uterus had ruptured, and a strangulated bowel had burst, due to a long-untreated umbilical hernia (caused by her final pregnancy in 1724). George II ordered a pair of coffins with removable sides, so that when he joined her in death, they could lay together.

In 1739, Anne had a second stillborn daughter. However, in 1743, she had a healthy daughter, who she named Carolina, after her mother. In 1746, Anne had another daughter, Anna, who only lived for six weeks.

A Final Home at The Hague: Years 1747 - 1759

In 1747, upon William's appointment as General Stadtholder of all the Netherlands, the family moved from Leeuwarden to The Hague. Then, in 1748, the long-awaited son and heir, William, was born. Anne was 38 years old at the time. When William was one year old, he was made the 568th Knight of the Order of the Garter, providing evidence for the maxim that it's all in who you know.  

William IV had been born in 1711, just six weeks after his father's death. His mother had been appointed regent during his childhood. In 1751, when William IV's son was only three-and-a-half years old, William IV died at the age of 40. Anne was appointed regent for the newly-styled William V.

As Princess-Regent, Anne was hardworking, but was unpopular due to her demeanor, which was seen as "neither ingratiating nor bending," according to Walpole. She had a great deal of power as regent, a position she held for nearly 11 years. Despite her powerful position, she was unable to convince the Netherlands to enter the Seven Years' War on the side of the British. The war lasted for most of Anne's regency, and Britain won without the help of the Netherlands. In 1759, when William V was only 10 years old, his mother, Anne, died of dropsy at The Hague.

A Coming of Age: Years 1759 - 1766

State Portrait of Prince William V of Orange 
by Johann Georg Ziesenis

After Anne's death, William V's grandmother, the Dowager Princess Marie Louise, was appointed co-regent, in which capacity she served until her death in 1765. Her co-regent, Duke Louis Ernest, served until 1766, at which time he became a privy councilor.  However, William V was only 17 at the time, still too young to reign independently.

During their regency, in 1760, William V's elder sister, the 17-year-old Princess Carolina had married Karl Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg. In 1766, at the age of 22, Carolina stepped in to "tide over" William V, serving as regent for one year until he turned 18. By 1766, William V ruled as Stadtholder in his own right. Princess Carolina went on to have 15 children.

Family tree of Anne, Princess Royal (Ancestry.com):

My next post will be about the transition from George II to his grandson, George III. It is necessary to understand this transition, in order to understand how the third holder of the title Princess Royal, Charlotte, daughter of George III, came to be.

Transition: From the House of Stuart to the House of Hanover

Prince James: An Impolitic Heir Apparent: Years 1660 - 1673

To understand how Anne, the second holder of the title Princess Royal, came to be, one must first understand the transition of the English monarchy from the House of Stuart to the House of Hanover.

Anne Hyde, Duchess of York; King James II by Peter Lely

James Stuart, the younger brother of the first Princess Royal, Mary, and of Charles II, had two surviving daughters by his first wife, a commoner, Anne Hyde, who he had controversially married in 1660. Both daughters, Princess Mary and Princess Anne (not to be confused with Anne, Princess Royal), had been raised Protestant, on the orders of Charles II, James's elder brother and the successor of their father, Charles I. Before Anne Hyde's death in 1671, James had converted to Catholicism, in opposition to Charles II's wishes. In 1673, James's conversion became public when he refused to follow the Test Act, to the dismay of Parliament and the English public.

Mary of Modena by Simon Pietersz

Then, in 1673, James married a beautiful, 15-year-old, Italian, Catholic princess, Mary of Modena. The notoriously xenophobic English public feared Mary of Modena could be an agent of the Pope. The public was even more concerned about the unpopular marriage of the brother of the king, given that Charles II and his wife, Catherine of Braganza, were unable to have children. What if James one day succeeded Charles II? Not only would Britain have a Catholic ruler (horrors!), but could even end up with a Catholic dynasty!

Mary's Marriage and the Succession of James II: Years 1677 - 1688

In 1677, James reluctantly consented to the marriage of his daughter, Mary Stuart, to the Protestant William of Orange, and Mary left for the Dutch Republic, leaving her younger sister, Anne Stuart, behind in England. In 1685, Charles II died, ironically after having converted to Catholicism on his deathbed.  He was succeeded by his impolitic younger brother, James II. Tensions rose further when Mary of Modena gave birth in 1688 to a healthy heir, James Francis, in effect, placing Mary and Anne after James Francis in the line of succession. English law allowed women to inherit the throne only if they had no brother. England was actually more liberal than many other European nations/provinces, such as Hanover, which did not allow women to inherit territory, or crowns, at all.

In case you're wondering why James II's daughter, Mary Stuart, was never created Princess Royal, the reason is this: She married William of Orange in 1677, becoming Princess of Orange, eight years before her father's succession to the throne of England. She already had her title.

Family Tree of James II, including his children, Mary, Anne, James Francis, and Louisa Maria (Ancestry.com):

The Glorious Revolution and "Succession" of William III and Mary II: Years 1688 - 1689

Prominent Protestants, including Princess Anne herself, claimed the new heir was "suppositious", alleging he had been smuggled into the birth chamber in a warming pan (a highly unlikely scenario). Within seven weeks, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited William of Orange, Mary's husband, to invade England, which he subsequently did with Mary's support four months later.

Detail of William and Mary from the ceiling of the Painted Hall
by Sir James Thornhill; photo by James Brittain

Bewailing the disloyalty of his daughters, James II fled England, taking up residence in France, the country where he had lived during his exile following the deposition of his father, Charles I, and where he eventually died in 1701. Parliament pronounced James II to have abdicated his throne and declared Mary II and William III joint rulers of England. Bowing to many of William III's initial demands, Parliament agreed he could reign singly, in the event Mary predeceased him, thus delaying Princess Anne's eventual succession (and making her royally angry in the process). Parliament also passed the  Bill of Rights of 1689, which declared no Catholic could ever ascend the throne of England and that no English monarch could ever marry a Catholic.

The Succession of Queen Anne and the End of the House of Stuart: Years 1702 - 1714

Queen Anne and William, Duke of Gloucestor 

by studio of Sir Godfrey Kneller

Whether one views this change of monarchs as an abdication followed by a succession or as a usurpation, the fact is, it eventually led to the end of the House of Stuart. Princess Anne, James II's younger daughter, had married George of Denmark, in 1683. During her marriage, Anne had 17 pregnancies, but only five surviving children. Four of these died before the age of two. Anne's remaining son, William, lived to be 11, dying in 1700, likely of hydrocephalus. Anne's elder sister, Mary II, had died childless in 1694. William III continued to rule after Mary II's death, but never remarried. Therefore, upon William III's death in 1702, Anne was the only person remaining in the line of succession established by the Bill of Rights
of 1689. By the time of Anne's husband's death in 1708, she had no living
children. By the time of her own death in 1714, and thanks to the Bill of Rights of 1689, there was no one from the House of Stuart, at least no Protestants, left to inherit the English throne.

The Succession of George I and the Beginning of the House of Hanover: Year 1714

Family tree of Elizabeth, 

Queen of Bohemia (Ancestry.com):

However, Parliament had seen this coming. In 1701, Parliament had further tested the flexibility of the laws governing succession, while safeguarding England from any dreaded Catholic restoration. In the Act of Settlement of 1701, Parliament bypassed over 50 Catholic claimants more closely related to Anne (including Anne's probable half-brother, James Francis), stating the throne would go to the Protestant descendants of Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia and elder sister of Charles I (please see first post). Elizabeth's daughter, Sophia, married the Elector of Hanover in 1658. Sophia's eldest son, George, became heir to England's throne when his mother predeceased him. Although Sophia had famously quipped, "What Parliament does one day, it undoes the next", George I did ascend the throne in 1714 at the age of 54, founding the royal House of Hanover.

Sophia Dorothea, Princess of Hanover with her children,  
George and Sophia Dorothea by Jacques Valiant

By the time of his succession, George I had already had a pretty eventful life. He had entered into a loveless, arranged marriage with his first cousin, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, in 1682 (not to be confused with his mother, Sophia). He had had two children by Sophia, George Augustus and Sophia of Hanover (yes, a third Sophia), in 1683 and 1687, respectively. He had had three children by his royal mistress, as well. He and his wife, to whom he was physically abusive on at least one occasion, had become estranged. George probably had conspired to have his wife's lover, a Swedish count, murdered and sent to sleep with the fishes in 1694. George had then had his marriage dissolved that same year on the grounds that Sophia had abandoned the relationship. Sophia was imprisoned in Ahlden House in her native Celle until her death over 30 years later. George ensured she never saw her children again.

King George I by Sir Godfrey Kneller

Through some creative wrangling of Salic law and the principle of primogeniture, George's father, Ernest, had left all of his Hanoverian territories (but one) to George upon Ernest's death in 1698. George thereby became the absolute monarch of Hanover. He didn't even have to share any of the territories with his younger brothers. During Queen Anne's reign, England and Scotland had been united into a single, sovereign state, the Kingdom of Great Britain, by the Act of Union of 1707. Upon his succession in 1714, George I joined England, Scotland, Ireland and Hanover under one crown. Oh, and a few German territories he had picked up by the death of one of his uncles. Oh, and also the Swedish territories that were ceded to Hanover in 1719.

In case you're wondering why George I's daughter, Sophia of Hanover, was never titled Princess Royal, the reason is this: She married the King of Prussia in 1706, eight years before her father's succession to the throne of England, becoming Crown Princess and later, Queen of Prussia. She already had her title.