Transition: The Life and Reign of George III

He is an Englishman: Years 1738 - 1751

This post is about the life and reign of George III.  It is important to understand this transition, in order to understand the world in which the third holder of the title Princess Royal, Charlotte, daughter of George III, lived.

As we have seen, George I and George II ruled both Britain and Hanover, each periodically visiting the latter country, to the dismay of the British public.  George I made little effort to anglicize, surrounding himself with Hanoverian counselors ... and his Hanoverian mistress.  George II, however, made quite an effort to anglicize, thereby increasing his popularity with the British public. His son, Prince Frederick, who never inherited the crown of Britain, was an important proponent of the game of cricket; however, he was born and raised in the electorate of Hanover.

Prince Frederick's son, however, was British through and through.  George III was the third monarch of the House of Hanover, but the first born in Britain.  George III was born in London two months prematurely.  He was thought unlikely to survive and was therefore baptized on the same day.  As a child, George was healthy, but shy and reserved.  George spoke English, not German, as his first language.  By the age of eight, he was intellectually precocious, able to read and write in both English and German, as well as to comment on the political events of his day.

George, Prince of Wales with his brother 
and tutor, Ayscough; by Richard Wilson

George III and his brother, Edward, were educated together by private tutors.  Young George was especially devoted to one tutor, the Scottish John Stuart, Earl of Bute, a man to whom he would remain attached even during the first few years of his reign.  George received a thorough, if somewhat politically biased, education.  He studied French, Latin, music, history, geography, commerce, constitutional law, agriculture and mathematics.  George III was the first British monarch to study science systematically, his studies including chemistry, astronomy, and physics.  He learned dancing, fencing, and horseback riding, as well as how to play the violin, harpsichord and flute.  He was brought up strictly Anglican by his religiously conservative mother, Augusta, the Princess of Wales, and remained devout and pious during his reign, frequently praying for several hours a day.  George's brother, Edward, stated, "No boys were ever brought up in greater ignorance of evil than the King and myself."[1]

Unlike his father and grandfather, there is no evidence that young George had a negative relationship with his own father, Prince Frederick.  In fact, J. C. Long quotes from a set of instructions written by Prince Frederick to his 11-year-old son, in which he expresses, "the tenderest paternal affection" for him.[1]  Also, unlike his father and grandfather, young George was never separated from his own parents for any remarkable length of time during his childhood.

Due to the ongoing hostility between his father and grandfather, young George did not have a great deal of contact with his grandfather, George II during his childhood ... until the unexpected death of Prince Frederick in 1751.  When young George received the news of his father's death, "he turned pale, laid his hand on his breast, saying, 'I feel something here just as I did when I saw two workmen fall from the scaffold at Kew,' and he wept inconsolably the whole day through."[1]  Long writes, "And in the testament of Frederick, Prince of Wales, heir apparent, was this singularly prophetic sentence, as if he had a premonition that he might die untimely: 'I shall have no regret never to have wore the Crown, if you do but fill it worthily.'"[1]

The Family of Frederick, Prince of Wales by George Knapton

The Heir Apparent: Years 1751 - 1769

Lord Bute by Joshua Reynolds

George II created the new heir apparent, young George, Prince of Wales only three weeks after Prince Frederick's death.  Against George II's wishes, Parliament named Prince George's mother, Augusta, prospective regent in the event of George II dying prior to Prince George's 18th birthday.  However, George II continued to rule until his death when Prince George was 22 years old, making a regency unnecessary.

Still, the Dowager Princess of Wales held a great deal of influence over her son.  Likewise, her son's tutor, Lord Bute, held a great deal of influence over her, interestingly, beginning at the time she was named prospective regent.  Throughout England, it was progressively rumored, both verbally and in the press, that they were lovers.  Although these rumors may have been false, Augusta lost any popularity she had ... permanently.  This popularity was lost partly due to the opinion that "as the years rolled on she tried to dominate [George] in a pathological fashion which became a public scandal."[1]  George's childhood was quite sheltered.  He did not mingle often with teenagers his own age, remaining closest to his brother, Edward.

Relations between Augusta and King George II remained strained until his death.  She even thwarted his plan to marry young George to Duchess Sophie Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, the niece of the King of Prussia.  George II wished to strengthen relations with Prussia and Hanover, but Augusta poisoned young George's mind against the match.  He stated he would not be "bewolfenbuttelled", and Sophie Caroline went on to marry a nobleman 26 years her senior.[2]  (Interestingly, Sophie Caroline's brother went on to marry young George's sister, Augusta.  They had a daughter, Caroline of Brunswick, who went on to marry George III's son, George IV.  See last family tree on previous post.)

Whether pressured or guided by his mother and Lord Bute, young George refused a separate, grand establishment offered to him on his birthday by the King in 1756.  He wrote he felt it was "his duty to remain with his mother."[1]  George did, however, accept the King's offer of an income of £40,000 a year.  Also per Lord Bute's advice, in 1759, George refrained from proposing to a British noblewoman who he had met at a dance and with whom he had fallen hopelessly in love, Lady Sarah Lennox.  George III wrote "I am born for the happiness or misery of a great nation and consequently must act contrary to my passions."  Despite not becoming queen ... or perhaps because of it ... Lady Sarah went on to have quite an interesting life.

Also in 1759, at the age of 21, George suffered a great, personal loss.  His 18-year-old sister, Elizabeth, who had had poor health throughout her childhood, died unexpectedly of what was most likely appendicitis.  George wrote to Lord Bute, "I have attempted this morning to read but find it impossible as yet to do anything except think of that dear sister I have lost, who was a friend as well as relation; with whom I had flattered myself to live till Heaven thought it proper to take me out of this world."[1]

The Grandson is Made King

George III by Allan Ramsay

In 1760, George II died, and George III both succeeded to the British throne and became Elector of Hanover at the age of 22.  In his accession speech to Parliament, following one of his father's instructions by expressing his commitment to Britain, even over Hanover, George III stated, "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of Britain."  George III remained true to that sentiment, spending his entire reign in southern England and never once visiting Hanover, to the delight of the British public.

Queen Charlotte holding
Charlotte by Francis Cotes

Although by the time the House of Hanover came to rule Britain, "the principles on which [the monarch] should operate and his responsibility to Parliament had been clearly and repeatedly defined,"[1] George III's reign was peppered with power struggles between Parliament and this strong-willed, irascible monarch.  The most powerful members of Parliament had personalities strong enough to match that of George.  "[T]here were just four men of chief consequence in the kingdom - Newcastle, [Henry] Fox, Pitt [the elder] and Bute... Each of the four men had one quality in common, great diligence in their attention to government, and no one of them ... could gain ascendancy without consideration of the others."[1]  During the first few years of his reign, George III was primarily influenced by Bute and had a deep dislike of Pitt, who was by far the more competent and accomplished statesman.

Less than a year after his accession, George III married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  They met for the first time on their wedding day.  The couple, who were both crowned two weeks later, had a truly happy marriage. Remarkably, unlike his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, George III never took a mistress.  His faithfulness to his wife, unusual in royal couples at the time (and now), endeared him to the British public.  Queen Charlotte proved to be a "fertile Myrtle," producing 15 children who survived infancy. One of them, Charlotte, became the third holder of the title, Princess Royal.

Family Tree of George III (Ancestry.com):

Unfortunate Marriages: Years 1770 - 1772

Ever placing morality as a high priority, George III was shocked by the behavior of his brothers.  After his brother, Prince Henry, was exposed as an adulterer in 1770, Prince William married the daughter of a British baron, Anne Horton, later that year.  George III disapproved of this marriage, especially because the marriage was considered morganatic by Hanoverian law.  Any of Prince William's children and their ancestors would be barred from the Hanoverian succession.  This was particularly problematic during a time at which typhoid could quickly wipe out an entire royal nursery, leaving a sibling of the King next in line to the thrones of both countries.

In 1772, the Royal Marriages Act was passed at the insistence of the King.  This law forbade members of the royal family, specifically descendants of George II, from marrying without the consent of the monarch.  Subsequently, another brother of the King, Prince William Henry informed George III he had secretly married Maria, Countess Waldegrave back in 1766.  Maria, a widow, was also the illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole, and thereby related to George III's political opponents.  Neither Anne nor Maria were ever received at court.  Perhaps George III's reaction was not terribly surprising.  After all, he himself had been pressured to give up Lady Sarah Lennox in favor of Charlotte of Mecklinberg-Strelitz, due to dynastic considerations ... at a time when dynastic considerations could make the difference between war and peace.  (To add insult to injury, George III's disobedient sixth son, Prince Augustus, also married in contravention of the Act ... in 1793 to Lady Augusta Murray ... and again in 1831 to Lady Cecilia Underwood.)

The mental gymnastics required to even imagine the legal ramifications of this law, which now has a very broad ambit, to the many scattered descendants of George II, are staggering.  The following is one example: The crowns of Britain and Hanover were split in 1837.  The crown of Britain went to George III's granddaughter, Queen Victoria, and the crown of Hanover to George III's fifth son, Ernest Augustus.  The Hanoverian royal family later lost their crown when deposed in 1866.  Ernest Augustus's descendants, most of whom currently reside in what is now Germany, still petition the current British monarch, Elizabeth II, for permission to marry.  Some of these individuals still own land in Britain, as well as the right to petition for British titles, and therefore need Britain to consider their marriages (and future children) legitimate.  Luckily for the current Prince Ernst August Albert of Hanover and Princess Caroline of Monaco (a Catholic), as well as for the current Duke of Cambridge and Duchess of Cambridge (a former commoner), Elizabeth II is far more flexible than George III ever was.  

Although the Royal Marriages Act of 1772 is still in effect and unaltered, it is imperfectly applied. Interestingly, the law may well be changed in 2013 to apply only to the first six people in the line of succession to the British crown.  This change would be to the relief of the many descendants of George II ... but may threaten the job security of a number of British barristers.

Colonial Rebellion and London Riots: Years 1773 - 1782

The Boston Tea Party by Nathaniel Currier

After growing unrest in the American colonies (such as 1773's Boston Tea Party), due to disagreements with Parliament over the issues of taxation and representation, the American colonies declared independence from Britain in 1776.  This resulted in the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence.  Depending on the side of the pond on which the history book was written, George III may be portrayed as a tyrant who refused the Americans representation while taxing them out of house and home ... or as a constitutional monarch reigning appropriately within his sphere, allowing his ministers the latitude necessary to carry out their responsibilities and supporting the right of an elected Parliament to levy taxes.  Either way, no monarch of that time, or any other, would have let such a large and valuable territory go without a fight.  George III determinedly refused to acknowledge the independence of the colonies.

In 1778, France allied with the colonies, entering the war openly after having supported the colonies covertly for two years.  Spain allied with the colonies in 1779.  The Dutch Republic continued to trade with the colonies until Britain declared war on the republic in 1780.  The alliance of these three countries with the colonies kept Britain on their toes, both in North America and in Europe.  The war was very costly for Britain, a country that did not have the virtually unlimited resources the colonists enjoyed.

Beset by military failures, territorial losses and an ever-growing family, George III suffered from a great deal of stress.  Then, personal tragedy struck.  The royal couple's youngest child, Alfred, became ill just after being inoculated for smallpox and died in 1782 at the age of almost two.  Evidently, he had contracted smallpox from the vaccination.  Only six months later, their youngest surviving child, Octavius, died under the same circumstances.

Lord George Gordon

The year 1780 brought with it significant domestic turmoil in the form of the Gordon Riots.  Led by Lord George Gordon, leader of the Protestant Association, approximately 50,000 Londoners marched on the House of Commons to protest the Papists Act of 1778, an act proposing to eliminate some of the penalties and restrictions imposed on Roman Catholic citizens by the Popery Act of 1698.  The Papists Act was introduced at the height of the American War of Independence, a time at which Britain needed all the military manpower it could recruit.  The act would facilitate the enlistment of Catholics in the British Armed Forces.  After the march, rioters destroyed numerous houses privately owned by Catholics, embassies, the homes of Irish immigrant workers, Newgate Prison, The Clink, and other private and public properties.  The riots, although put down, damaged Britain's international reputation at a time when it needed all the allies it could get.  (One may wish to read Charles Dickens's Barnaby Rudge, a classic historical novel taking place during the Gordon Riots.)

After Yorktown surrendered in 1781, George III drafted a notice of abdication, which was never delivered.  Britain accepted defeat.  France recognized the United States as an independent nation, followed by the Dutch Republic in 1782.  The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783, ending the War of American Independence.

Constitutional Crisis: Years 1783 - 1784

The partisan George III, sympathetic with the Tory party, had to contend with conflicts with Whig members of Parliament, many of which arose from profound philosophical differences.  Lord North's ministry collapsed in 1782, and Lord Rockingham became Prime Minster for the second time.  After he died within months of his election, George III appointed the Whig Lord Shelburne to replace him.  However, in 1783, the House of Commons forced him from office and replaced his government with the Fox-North Coalition.  Charles James Fox became Foreign Secretary.  This government, which was formed with no input from the King, lasted less than a year, losing popularity upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which offered terms to the Americans many believed to be too generous.

Charles James Fox by Joshua Reynolds

Charles James Fox was a Whig politician, a proponent of American independence, an anti-slavery campaigner, and a supporter of the French Revolution.  In contrast, George III represented the "old guard", doing everything in his power to maintain control of the colonies until the final loss of the war.  Fox was a notorious gambler and rake.  George III was well-known for his piety, frugality, and what we would now term "family values".  Fox supported the authority of Parliament and the constitution.  George III wanted influence over Parliamentary elections and appointments, a desire Fox called "tyranny".  George III thought Fox to have "cast off every principle of common honour and honesty" and been a man who was "as contemptible as he is odious" and had an "aversion to all restraints."  Fox associated George III's reign with "despotism", denouncing him more thoroughly than any American rebel ever did.

George III refrained even from communicating with this new government, much less patronizing it. Fox once ended an epistle to the King with, "Whenever your Majesty will be graciously pleased to condescend even to hint your inclinations upon any subject, that it will be the study of Your Majesty's Ministers to show how truly sensible they are of Your Majesty's goodness."  George III replied, "No answer."

George, Prince of Wales 
by Richard Cosway

George III had not only political, but personal reasons, as well, for disliking Fox.  He saw him as an extremely bad influence on his eldest son, the Prince of Wales.  George III blamed Fox for the Prince's notorious debauchery and "many failings, not the least a tendency to vomit in public."  Although seriously considering abdicating the throne after the loss of the colonies and the onset of this unpalatable government, George III pressed on, spurred by nightmarish visions of the accession of his son, a consummate womanizer, spendthrift, and gambler, who could swear in three languages ... and most likely took after George III's own father, Prince Frederick.  George III was ever disappointed in the grandiose Prince, who, despite having been raised in a quite religious household, failed to internalize the values of George III.

Late in 1783, however, things started looking up.  The 24-year-old William Pitt the Younger, the King's nominee, was appointed Prime Minister ... the youngest ever.  He remained in power for 17 years.  George III saw Pitt's appointment as a victory.  Having interpreted public opinion correctly, the King had appointed a Prime Minister without following the suit of the majority in the House of Commons.  George III held his footing and gained political ground over the next several years, supporting Pitt's political goals and increasing Pitt's supporters in the House of Lords by, well, creating them.  The King created new peers at an incredible rate.  Throughout the administrative changes of the early 1780s, George III continued to be popular among his subjects, who admired his personal values.

Filial Disobedience: Years 1785

Maria Fitzherbert by Sir Joshua Reynolds

In December of 1785, in contravention of the Royal Marriages Act, the 21-year-old Prince of Wales secretly married twice-widowed, 27-year-old Maria Fitzherbert, a commoner ... and practicing Catholic.  If it had been considered legitimate, this marriage would have barred the Prince from the succession under the Act of Settlement of 1701 (see third post).  However, since the King did not give his permission for the marriage, it was considered illegitimate.  The Prince of Wales's relationship with Maria Fitzherbert continued until 1794, at which time the extravagant Prince was in debt to the tune of £600,000.  For both financial and dynastic reasons, the Prince married his first cousin, Charlotte of Brunswick, in 1795 ... a marriage that would prove to be a train wreck.

Royal Madness: Years 1786 - 1788

In 1786, a woman named Margaret Nicholson attempted to assassinate George III while he was alighting from his carriage. Feigning to present a petition to the King, she then attempted to stab him twice with a dessert knife. Once she was disarmed, George III reputedly said, "The poor creature is mad. Do not hurt her. She has not hurt me." Miss Nicholson was sent to Bedlam, where she remained until her death 42 years later. George III's compassion toward his mentally ill assailant is notable, especially considering how his own circumstances changed two years later.

Porphyria is a hereditary disorder caused by abnormalities in the steps leading to the production of heme, a chemical compound essential to the body. Multiple enzymes are needed for the body to produce heme. If any one of the enzymes is abnormal, the process cannot continue and an intermediate product, porphyrin, may build up and be excreted in the urine and stool. People with porphyria may develop symptoms affecting their skin (cutaneous type) or their nervous systems (acute type). (Did you follow all of this? No? Don't worry, I didn't either.)

The main thing to know is that if a person develops acute porphyria, he or she can exhibit personality changes and mental illness, which can appear intermittently and last from a few days to several weeks ... or longer. Attacks of porphyria can be triggered by a number of things, including exposure to chemicals and emotional/physical stress. During the 1700s, porphyria was a mystery to physicians. It was not until 1871 that porphyria was explained biochemically. It was not until 1889 that acute porphyria, the type causing mental illness, was explained. No one could identify it, much less treat it.

Despite a lack of proof, some medical historians believe George III developed porphyria during the summer of 1788. Despite an insufficiency of genetic evidence, some historians believe porphyria was (perhaps is) transmitted genetically within the royal family. (George III's great-great-grandson, Prince William of Gloucester, was reliably diagnosed with porphyria in 1966, although his symptoms were apparently limited to that of the cutaneous type.) Some believe George III's periodic attacks of porphyria may have been triggered by exposure to arsenic, a known porphyrogenic, either through cosmetics or medication. (A 2005 study of a hair sample of George III revealed high levels of arsenic.) Other historians believe George III may have had bipolar disorder. Regardless of the cause, George III began to exhibit symptoms of severe mental and physical illness.

By November of 1788, George III was deranged. He sometimes spoke for hours without stopping, which made his voice hoarse and caused him to foam at the mouth. He would hallucinate, believing himself to be having conversations with his two deceased little sons. At one point, he mistook a pillow for Octavius, who had been dead for five years. His physicians could not diagnose his illness and did not know how to treat it. They could only forcibly restrain him until he calmed down. In February of 1789, the Regency Bill was passed in the House of Commons, authorizing the Prince of Wales to act as regent for the King. However, before the House of Lords could pass the bill, the King recovered, his popularity still intact.  (For an interesting dramatization of this episode, see the 1994 film, The Madness of King George, directed by Nicholas Hytner.)

The French Revolution and Parliamentary Turnover: Years 1789 - 1809

Marie Antoinette by Le Brun

France's absolute monarchy, which had ruled for centuries, was overthrown in only three years. Radical political groups transformed society, espousing the principles of "liberty, equality and fraternity". The revolution began in 1789, and King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed in 1793. In 1792, a republic was declared and the French Revolutionary Wars began. France was continually at war with Britain from 1793 until 1802, ceasing with the Treaty of Amiens. In 1799, General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the French Directory, seized power, and replaced it with the French Consulate in the coup d'état called the coupe of 18 Brumaire. In 1803, the Treaty of Amiens collapsed and Britain and France again went to war. In 1804, Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor. Britain remained at war with France until Bonaparte's defeat and death at Waterloo in 1815. George III became a symbol of resistance to French power.

These years, which changed the face of Europe, saw domestic political changes, as well. In order to decrease the likelihood of Irish rebellions, such as the one that occurred in 1798, Pitt helped to bring about the Act of Union of 1800. This Act united Great Britain and Ireland, forming the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".

In 1800, the King survived a second assassination attempt. At the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, a man named James Hadfield attempted to shoot George III during the playing of the national anthem. Hadfield missed and then addressed the King: "God bless your Royal Highness. I like you very well. You are a good fellow." Hadfield was acquitted of attempted murder by reason of insanity and was sent to Bedlam, where he remained (aside from a short period of escape) until his death 41 years later. His case led to the passage of the Criminal Lunatics Act of 1800, which provided for the indefinite detention of mentally ill defendants.

In 1801, George III himself had another bout of mental illness, but again recovered ... only to repeat the process again in 1804. Pitt died in 1806 and was succeeded by Lord Grenville, the Duke of Portland, and Spencer Percival. After Percival's assassination, Lord Liverpool became Prime Minister and saw the Napoleonic Wars to their conclusion ... British victory.

Melancholy Beyond Description: Years 1810 - 1820

During the 1400s, the mental illness of England's king, at that time Henry VI, created a climate of political instability that contributed to the rise of, and helped perpetuate, the War of the Roses. Henry VI would intermittently become catatonic, completely immobile and unable to speak, for weeks to months at a time. The instability was created not only by his mental illness, but also by his periods of recovery. The power of the crown would be threatened, then reestablished, only to be threatened again.

Princess Amelia of the United Kingdom 
by William Beechey

In 1810, George III lost his favorite, beloved daughter, the 27-year-old Princess Amelia, to tuberculosis. Her death caused him to rave with grief, late Amelia's nurse reporting, "the scenes of distress and crying every day ... were melancholy beyond description." The stress triggered a final relapse of porphyria. A regency was finally established in 1811 by act of Parliament. The heir to the throne, the Prince of Wales, was appointed Prince Regent. The Prince ruled until the death of George III in 1820, then succeeding to the throne as George IV. The years of 1810 to 1820 are known as the Regency Era, a time of elegance and rigid social etiquette, a time that saw the height of Jane Austen's literary career, the War of 1812, the poetry of Shelley and Byron, and the birth of Alexandrina Victoria, the future Queen Victoria.

The final 10 years of George III's life were years of suffering. He was in constant pain from rheumatism, almost completely blind from cataracts, and continuously mentally ill. He lived in seclusion at Windsor Castle. He was completely unaware of major events. For instance, the Congress of Vienna, which concluded the Napoleonic Wars, led to territorial gains for the electorate of Hanover, which consequently became a kingdom. Unbeknownst to him, in 1814, George III was declared King of Hanover (which sounded better than "Elector").

George III's much loved and faithful wife, Queen Charlotte, died in 1818 at the age of 74, while seated in her armchair at Kew Palace and holding the hand of the Prince Regent. The King never knew. During the Christmas season of 1819, George III spoke nonsense for 58 hours straight. For the final few weeks of his life, he was unable to walk. George III's fourth son, Prince Edward, died on January 23, 1820 of pneumonia, his daughter, baby Alexandrina Victoria, not yet a year old. Only six days later, George III himself died, his favorite son, Prince Frederick, at his side. He was buried in St. George's Chapel in Windsor Castle.

A Great King ... After All

George III left quite a legacy. The British Agricultural Revolution reached its peak during his reign. George III, intensely interested in agriculture, was dubbed "Farmer George" by satirists. During his reign, advances were made in the fields of science and industry. His collection of scientific and mathematical instruments can now be seen in the Science Museum in London. Upon discovering the planet Uranus in 1781, William Herschel named it George's Star, since George III had funded the construction of his telescope, at 40 feet, the largest that had ever been built. George III collected art and books. He made his extensive King's Library available to scholars, and it later became the foundation of a new national library. It is estimated that George III donated more than half of his personal income to charity.

Having lived for 81 years and reigned for almost 60, both his life and his reign were longer than any monarch who came before him. Only his granddaughter, Queen Victoria, and his great-great-granddaughter, Elizabeth II have since lived and reigned longer. Almost as if he had foreseen the polarized views that would be taken of him by future historians, George III once stated he hoped "the tongue of malice may not paint my intentions in those colours she admires, nor the sycophant extol me beyond what I deserve."

1. Long, J. C. George III: The Story of a Complex Man. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1960.
2. Hibbert, Christopher. George III: A Personal History. Basic Books, 1998.